Word Usage in General Writing (Reference: Michael Swan: Essential Grammar Usage)

Below we consider what terms and expressions are suitable vs. unsuitable to use in your essay/report writing. If you are uncertain, please consult me.

Above ("the above method," "mentioned above," etc.) -- Often, you are referring to something preceding, but not necessarily above; a loose reference, convenient for writers, but not for readers. Be specific. You know exactly what and where, but your readers may have to search (sometimes through much preceding material).

Affect, effect -- Affect is a verb and means to influence. Effect, as a verb, means to bring about; as a

noun, effect means result.

All of, both of -- Just "all" or "both" will serve in most instances.

Alternate, alternative -- Be sure which you mean.

And (to begin a sentence) -- Quite proper. You have been told not to do this in grade school. But teacher's purpose was to keep you from using fragmentary sentences; either "and" or "but" may be used to begin complete sentences. And both are useful transitional words between related or contrasting statements.

Apparently (apparent) -- means obviously, clearly, plainly evident, but also means seemingly or

ostensibly as well as observably. You know the meaning that you intend, but readers may not.

Ambiguity

results. Use obvious(ly), clear(ly), seeming(ly), evident(ly), observable or observably, to remove doubt.

Appear, appears -- Seem(s)? "He always appears on the scene, but never seems to know what to do."

"Marley's ghost appeared but seemed harmless."

As -- Dialectal when used in place of that or whether; do not use as to mean because or inasmuch as.

At the present time, at this point in time -- Say "at present" or "now" if necessary at all.

Below -- See comment about above.

But (to begin a sentence) -- Go right ahead (see "And" and "However").

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By means of -- Most often, just "by" will serve and save words.

Case -- Can be ambiguous, misleading, or ludicrous because of different connotations; e.g., "In the case of Scotch whiskey,...." Case also is a frequent offender in padded, drawn-out sentences. For "in this case," try "in this instance."

Compare with, compare to -- Compare with means to examine differences and similarities; compare to means to represent as similar. One may conclude that the music of Brahms compares to that of

Beethoven, but to do that, one must first compare the music of Brahms with that of Beethoven.

Comprise -- Before misuse, comprise meant to contain, include, or encompass (not to constitute or

compose) and still does, despite two now opposite meanings. Use and meanings now are so confused and mixed that "comprise" is best avoided altogether.

Correlated with, correlated to -- Although things may be related to one another, things are correlated with one another.

Different from, different than -- Different from! Also, one thing differs from another, although you may differ with your colleagues.

Due to -- Make sure that you don't mean because of. Due is an adjective modifier and must be directly

related to a noun, not to a concept or series of ideas gleaned from the rest of a statement. "Due to the fact that..." is an attempt to weasel out.

During the course of, in the course of -- Just use "during" or "in."

Either....or, neither...nor -- Apply to no more than two items or categories. Similarly, former and latter refer only to the first and second of only two items or categories.

Experience(d) -- To experience something is sensory; inanimate, unsensing things (lakes, soils, enzymes, streambeds, farm fields, etc.) do not experience anything.

Following -- "After" is more precise if "after" is the meaning intended. "After [not following] the

procession, the leader announced that the ceremony was over."

High(er), low(er) -- Much too often used, frequently ambiguously or imprecisely, for other words such as greater, lesser, larger, smaller, more, fewer; e.g., "Occurrences of higher concentrations were lower at higher levels of effluent outflow." One interpretation is that greater concentrations were fewer or less frequent as effluent volume(s) increased, but others also are possible.

However -- Place it more often within a sentence or major element rather than at the beginning or end. "But" serves better at the beginning.

Hyphening of compound or unit modifiers -- Often needed to clarify what is modifying what; e.g., a small-grain harvest (harvest of small grain) is different from a small grain harvest (small harvest of all grain), a fast acting dean isn't necessarily as effective as a fast-acting dean, a batch of (say, 20) 10-litre containers is different from a batch of 10 [1-] litre containers, and a man eating fish is very different from a man-eating fish! Grammatically, adjectives are noun modifiers, and the problem is when adjectives and nouns are used to modify other adjectives and nouns. Adverbs (usually with "ly" endings), however, are adjective modifiers.

In order to -- For brevity, just use "to".

Irregardless -- No, regardless. But irrespective might do.

It should be mentioned, noted, pointed out, emphasized, etc. -- Such preambles often add nothing but words. Just go ahead and say what is to be said.

It was found, determined, decided, felt, etc. -- Are you being evasive? Why not put it frankly and

directly? (And how about that subjective "felt"?)

Less(er), few(er) -- "Less" refers to quantity; "fewer" to number.

Majority, vast majority -- See if most will do as well or better. Look up "vast."

Myself -- Not a substitute for me. "This paper has been reviewed by Dr. Smith and myself" and "The

report enclosed was prepared by Dr. Jones and myself" are incorrect as is "Don't hesitate to call Dr. Doe or myself"; me would have been correct in all instances. (Use of I also would have been wrong in those examples.) Some correct uses of myself: I found the error myself. I myself saw it happen. I am not myself today. I cannot convince myself. I locked myself out of the car.

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Partially, partly -- Compare the meanings (see also impartially). Partly is the better, simpler, and more precise word when partly is meant.

Percent, percentage -- Not the same; use percent only with a number.

Predominate, predominant -- Predominate is a verb. Predominant is the adjective; as an adverb,

predominantly (not "predominately").

Prefixes -- (mid, non, pre, pro, re, semi, un, etc.) -- Usually not hyphened in U.S. usage except before a proper name (pro-Iowa) or numerals (mid-60s) or when lack of a hyphen makes a word ambiguous or awkward. Recover a fumble, but perhaps re-cover a sofa. Preengineered is better hyphened as pre-

engineered, one of the few exceptions so hyphened. Breaking pairs such as predoctoral and

postdoctoral into pre- and post-doctoral "forces" hyphening of both otherwise unhyphened words.

Principle, principal -- They're different; make sure which you mean.

Prior to, previous to -- Use before, preceding, or ahead of. There are prior and subsequent events that

occur before or after something else, but prior to is the same kind of atrocious use that attempts to

substitute "subsequent to" for "after."

Proven -- Although a proven adjective, stick to proved for the past participle. "A proven guilty person

must first have been proved guilty in court."

Provided, providing -- Provided (usually followed by "that") = conjunction; providing = participle.

Reason why -- Omit why if reason is used as a noun. The reason is...; or, the reason is that...

Since -- has a time connotation; use "because" or "inasmuch as" when either is the intended meaning.

Small in size, rectangular in shape, blue in colour, tenuous in nature, etc. -- Redundant.

That and which -- Two words that can help, when needed, to make intended meanings and relationships unmistakable, which is important in reporting scientific information. If the clause can be omitted without leaving the modified noun incomplete, use which and enclose the clause within commas or parentheses; otherwise, use that. Example: "The lawn mower, which is broken, is in the garage." But, "The lawn mower that is broken is in the garage; so is the lawn mower that works."...That is broken specifies the particular mower being discussed, whereas which is broken merely adds additional information to the sentence.

To be -- Frequently unnecessary. "The differences were [found] [to be] significant."

Varying -- Be careful to distinguish from various or differing. In saying that you used varying amounts or varying conditions, you are implying individually changing amounts or conditions rather than a selection of various or different ones.

Where -- Use when you mean where, but not for "in which," "for which," etc.

Which is, that were, who are, etc. -- Often not needed. For example, "the data that were related to age were analyzed first" means that the data related to age were analyzed first. Similarly, for "the site, which is located near Ames," try "the site, located near Ames" or "the site, near Ames." Rather than "all persons who were present voted," just say that "all persons present voted." Rephrasing sometimes can help. Instead of "a survey, which was conducted in 1974" or "a survey conducted in 1974," try "a 1974 survey."

While -- Preferably not if, while writing, you mean and, but, although, or whereas.

Remember that a research report should communicate and record information as accurately and concisely as possible. The purpose is to report, not to impress with elegance. Excess wordage, tortuous construction, unnecessary detail, duplication, repetition, third-person passive pseudo-objectivism, etc., obstruct rather than facilitate communication. It's the message that is important, not sheer numbers of words. Use precise words and expressions of unmistakable meaning; avoid the clouded, ambiguous, vague, and needlessly complex.